1966年辛格开发的白日梦问卷可以算是最早的量表。(一)白日梦频率分量表 实际应用中,大量研究选取了IPI中DFS测查走神情况。DFS包含12个项目,从不同场合下白日梦发生次数、持续时间来总体性地估计走神频率。(二)简版想象过程问卷 与白日梦频率量表相似,简版想象过程问卷也源于早期的白日梦问卷。由于项目简洁、内容明确,SIPI自开发以来,常被用于走神研究。......
2023-11-20
关于走神的内容、特点、与其他心理过程和心理品质的关系,以及功能研究主要集中在成人被试上,而且被试人群主要是青年人,[47]也有部分研究是对老年人和成年人的走神进行的差异比较和针对儿童的研究。最早进行年龄差异探讨的研究者通过对17岁到70岁人群白日梦现象的问卷测试发现,指向过去的白日梦内容不会随着年龄增长而增加。[48]
(一)老年人的走神
对老年人和青年成人的比较研究指出,随着年龄的增长,个体认知能力和对无关刺激的注意抑制能力下降;但在各种不同的实验任务中 (持续性注意、情节编码、阅读理解和工作记忆任务),老年人的走神或与任务无关思维的发生频率显著低于年轻人。[49]而且,对日常生活中的走神研究发现,老年人和年轻人的负性情绪和走神均成正相关,但老年人的走神内容相较而言更有趣、更让人愉悦,而年轻人的走神更梦幻、新奇、陌生和具有竞赛性。[50]也有研究者发现,拥有更多积极情绪的老年人报告了更少的走神现象,而拥有更多消极情绪的年轻人报告了更多的走神。[51]
老年人的走神少的原因可能是[52]:①他们成功完成任务的动机强,或者说,他们比年轻人更有兴趣参加实验室任务。虽然老年人的执行功能下降,但较高的任务动机会让他们把执行功能资源更多地分配在任务上,进而降低走神。②他们更关心任务成绩。③在实验室环境中可能无意间包含了一些年轻人关注的线索,这些线索会驱动年轻人走神。④老年人本身产生的与任务无关的想法少,就会无意识地驱使其对任务目标的加工更专心,从而产生较少的走神。
但也有研究使用文本阅读的方式,在实验过程中随机插入思维探针让被试停止阅读以探查他们的走神情况,最后要求文本回顾,结果发现老年人与青年人的走神情况没有显著差异。[53]所以,目前仍旧不能够得出老年人的走神频率高于年轻人的结论。
(二)儿童青少年的走神
针对青少年走神发展特点的研究还很缺乏,只有很少的走神研究是针对儿童青少年的。国内研究者有2项对10岁左右儿童的研究,他们通过探针取样考察被试在完成简单持续性注意任务 (SART)中的走神,发现了走神对他们作业成绩的消极作用。但叶 (Ye)等人通过对8岁到14岁的小学生进行研究发现,走神有助于他们心理之旅 (mental time travel)的发展。[54]
有研究者同时安排计算机执行功能测试任务和课堂情境的任务以考察9岁到11岁德国儿童的走神情况,通过探针取样测查被试在课堂听录音材料时和完成计算机执行功能任务时的状态走神 (state),且在课堂任务前测查被试的特质走神 (trait)。他们发现,特质走神和状态走神呈高相关,而且计算机任务和课堂听录音材料任务的状态性走神也相似。他们从侧面证明了课堂任务中测查到的走神跟实验室任务中的走神存在共通性。[55]一项对八年级中学生 (约14岁)在阅读过程中的走神及走神对理解能力的影响的研究发现,较难的文本会导致学生较低的主题兴趣、阅读过程中出现较多的走神以及较差的理解力。同时,研究还发现特质性走神既有积极作用,也有消极作用,表明在儿童阅读走神的干预中找到恰当的方法也可以对学生的阅读有所帮助。[56]姆拉兹克 (Mrazek)及其合作者编制了针对青少年的走神量表 (MWQ),信效度较好,并以此测量了青少年的走神水平。他们通过研究发现走神不利于青少年成长,高走神与糟糕心情、低生活满意度、强压和低自尊有关,而且大学生的高走神与较差的工作记忆成绩相关。但他们也发现,高走神并不能预测初中生和高中生的低阅读成绩,反而还与高中生的高阅读理解相关。这种不同年龄段间的成绩差异是发展阶段导致的,还是任务类型或走神概念的测量技术造成的,目前还不清楚。[57]
以往关于成年人的研究中,成人走神的表征形式多为自传体记忆、情景记忆等。对9岁到13岁学龄期儿童的走神内容进行的研究发现,儿童走神的内容大部分指向未来,这与在成年人中的研究结果是一致的。但是,与成年人不同的是,虽然儿童的走神体现出更多的前瞻性倾向,但他们的走神基本不受任务认知需求的影响。走神是否影响儿童青少年长期的学业表现,进而影响其成长,还需要探讨。
此外,在走神的脑机制研究中,它在个体的哪个阶段产生,以什么形式表征出来,依然未知。但是,可以肯定的是,脑中与走神相关的默认网络和执行网络在婴儿期还未发育成熟,在儿童8岁到9岁甚至更晚些时候才能成熟,[58]而作为默认网络核心脑区与走神加工密切相关的前额中叶 (mPFC)的发育更是可以延迟到青年期。[59]
可见,比起成年人,儿童青少年的认知能力发展快速,他们在日常生活中的走神可能也具有一定的独特之处。因此,对于发展中的低龄儿童青少年,更需要探索他们走神的发生发展特点。通过对学龄期儿童开展走神研究,我们可以对这一阶段儿童的早期经验和自发灵活学习有更深入的认知,帮助研究者了解儿童青少年在清醒状态下是怎么产生走神的。
【注释】
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姆拉泽克 等人[59]提出的走神问卷 可以直接测量青少年个体的特质走神。鞠恩霞等对MWQ进行了中文版修订,保留了原量表的5个项目,进行信效度检验后证实具有良好的心理测量学指标。[60]MWQ内容上完全聚焦于走神,而且表达上清晰简洁,适用于青少年及成人。MWQ是第一个直接测量总体走神的量表,内容明确、表达清晰,且量表只有5个项目,在保证信效度的情况下简便易实施,具有其他量表无法比拟的优势。......
2023-11-20
探针取样是最常使用的自我报告方式。还有研究者要求被试回答,他们对自己产生的与任务无关的想法是否能意识到,而研究自我报告自信心的学者则可以在探针后再插入一个自信量表,明确被试对元意识的自信程度。此外,已有研究证明,在实验任务中询问个体的心理状态,可能会通过增加个体对思维内容的元意识而改变其行为,特别是思维探针的频率和框架效应会影响被试报告的走神率。......
2023-11-20
内容调节假设认为,走神对心理健康特别重要,走神与心理健康之间的关系跟不同的走神内容有关。走神和心理健康之间的关系取决于个体的评估以及如何调节走神的内容,使走神产生最有成效的结果,并尽量减少对其幸福或其他结果的危害。这一假设强调走神是一种异质的、而不是同质的状态。而将走神的内容限制在未来指向和感兴趣内容上,会给个体带来更好的收益。......
2023-11-20
即,之前研究者可能将有意识的走神和无意识的走神混淆了。通过分析发现,相比于有意走神,自发走神与单维度的走神的相关度更高。随后,他们也明确指出个体自发产生的、没有特定目的且不能自主控制的是一种自发走神,而有目的的个体可以主导自己的注意指向但仍然允许自己产生与任务无关想法的走神是一种有意走神,即有意走神和自发走神是 “能自主地转换注意焦点和不能自主地转换注意焦点”的关系。......
2023-11-20
元意识理论认为元意识能够间断地对意识内容进行再表征,对心理活动或思维进行描述、解释和监控。也就是说,元意识能力能够使个体有机会辨认那些偏离预期目标状态的意识内容 (走神),进而纠正我们的意识体验。元意识和走神之间可能存在着负相关关系,它们可能正好处于人类认知谱的两极。这种情况表明,被试出现走神时会频繁地缺乏元意识。......
2023-11-20
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