美国农村教师补充实践中所采用的财政激励和非财政激励虽然都取得了一定的成效,但是,二者对农村教师补充产生作用的机制并不完全相同,也有各自的优缺点,因此,有必要对二者的效果进行比较。(一)财政激励与非财政激励各显长处财政激励、非财政激励各自对美国农村教师补充作出了不同的贡献,二者具有不同的优势。......
2023-10-16
一些研究表明,不同年龄或职业阶段、不同性别或不同民族等特点的教师对不同激励的敏感度不同,这体现了教师个体对激励类型和具体激励种类选择上的偏好,而这种偏好在一定程度上影响了政策实施的效果。
有研究探讨了不同职业生涯阶段教师在财政激励和职业发展激励(非财政激励的一种)上的选择偏好问题。该研究将教师职业发展生涯划分为四个阶段:具有少于1年教学经验为职业早期阶段I(ESI),有1~6年经验为职业早期阶段II(ESII),有7~15年经验为职业中期阶段(MS),已完成15年或以上教学经验为职业后期阶段(LS)。[75]
该研究发现,职业生涯早期阶段(I/II)的受访者更支持绩效工资和基于表现的工资举措。财政激励措施比职业发展激励机制更为重要,一个可能的理由是,由于职业生涯和自己的生活(如家庭和个人的利益)最初阶段的感情和身体平衡的调整需要,着眼于未来的职业目标在这个阶段可能不是一个优先事项。而早期职业生涯阶段的受访者所重视的财政奖励类型略有不同。与学区的补偿方案联系在一起的福利(健康/医疗、退休等)具有高度重要性。在这些职业生涯阶段受访者的报告中,贷款赦免或减免和学费报销计划也很重要。这可能是因为,当这些职业生涯阶段的教师继续自己的职业发展目标,财政援助需要是显而易见的。中、晚期的职业生涯受访者同样重视财政奖励。但是,职业发展激励对他们而言也有较高程度的重要性,比在早期职业生涯阶段的受访者中更受重视。[76]
当然,早期职业生涯阶段的教师对职业发展激励并非毫无需要,他们同样期望专业发展和继续教育的机会以提高他们的教学技能。但是,不同职业阶段教师对专业发展激励的具体选择偏好有差异。在开放式访谈中,初任教师(ESI/ESII)表示专业发展的需要,而老教师(MS/LS)寻求角色改变的机会,包括担任导师。[77]
另有研究侧重探讨了财政激励影响强度与对象的关系问题。在这一问题上,尽管财政激励整体上对教师都起作用,但对不同的对象,其所起作用大小和方式有差异。
在性别方面,多项研究发现,男性和女性均对财政激励作出积极反应,但男性比女性的反应更强烈。在薪酬不理想的情况下,男性有更大的可能离开教学转向其他职业寻求更高报酬,而女性则更可能为获得待遇的改善转到其他地区,但仍留在教学领域。[78]
在年龄方面,研究发现,薪资激励措施可能对年轻教师的保留比对年长的教师有较大的影响。在一项对得克萨斯州教师流动的研究中,发现在头几年教师经验上升阶段,更高的薪水在降低教师流失率的影响力是上升的,但这种影响在教师经验增加后下降。另一项研究发现了同样的趋势,在他们的分析中,工资对教师保留的影响在第8年后消失。该研究认为,这种影响的降低可能是由于这一事实,即改变行业随时间的变化变得更加困难。为此,他们假设,对薪水最敏感的教师如果在低工资地区工作,很可能会很快离开这个行业。另有一些研究从教师满意度和自我效能感等方面解释财政激励在不同年龄的影响,他们提出,教师的教学满意度和自我效能感随着时间的推移而升高,当升高到一定的程度,教师就不太可能离开教师行业。因此,一般来说,一名教师在工作岗位上待的时间越长,他离开学校的可能性就相应降低。一些研究结果还发现,教师工资的多少对教师转移到其他地区的影响比教师离开行业的影响更强。[79]
总体来看,薪酬激励能够对教师的招聘和保留产生积极的影响,但这种影响在性别和年龄间略有不同。此外,影响的强度很可能取决于有关结果是涉及退出教师行业,或转移到另一个学校或学区。政策制定者和学校管理者越了解有关教师对激励机制的选择,他们就越能有效地使用奖励计划,为每个教室吸引和留住合格的教师。[80]
【注释】
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[63]本部分内容已发表于《西部农村教师补充的模型建构与实证分析——基于补偿性工资差别理论的视角》一文中,论文刊载于《教师教育研究》2015年第27卷第6期第45-51页,作者为李玲、卢锦珍和李婷。
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财政激励措施主要通过满足人们的物质需要吸引人们到农村任教,而非财政激励着眼的是人们的精神需要。此类激励措施的共同点是使服务于农村学校的教师获得某种非货币性质的奖励或补偿,以实现对精神需要的满足。TFA对招募来的成员进行短期的培训,一般是在夏季集中训练5个星期,然后派往最需要的地区任教。由于大多数组织成员在教学之前还没有完成传统的教育课程的学习,他们在大多数州被认为是“非传统”的教师。......
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在美国农村教师补充中,无论是教师培养,还是教师招聘,抑或教师保留,都需要大量的经费投入。经费保障机制的核心是保证经费来源。美国农村教师补充政策实施的经费来源主要有以下两种。目前,美国的农村义务教育所需经费由联邦、州和学区这三级共同分担。可见,美国农村教师补充政策在实施过程中有较为多样的经费来源,这在一定程度上为政策目标的实现奠定了较好的物质基础。......
2023-10-16
图4-20 各种跷板开关实物图4-21 双控开关底面接线端调光开关不能与节能灯、荧光灯配合使用。图4-22 调光、调速开关常用的声光控延时开关有螺口型和面板型两大类,如图4-23所示。面板型声光控延时开关一般安装在原来的机械开关位置处。图4-23 常用声光控延时开关的外形5.触摸延时开关触摸延时开关利用人体的感应信号,去控制电灯的开关。......
2023-08-18
一般而言,“农村”是与“城市”或“城镇”相对应的概念。在国内的教育研究领域,农村概念有两种代表性的界定:一种是把行政区域划分中的县及其以下区域称为农村,其余的则为城市;一种是把县辖的乡镇及以下地区划为农村,其余地区为城市。美国全国教育统计中心一般把地方编码中属于第7~8类地区认定为“农村”地区,即2 500人以下的社区。这两点对于农村教育和农村教师补充都是非常不利的。......
2023-10-16
总的来看,众多涉及美国农村教师补充政策的研究只限于对相关策略和措施的一般介绍,但有少量研究探讨了这些策略和措施的效果。[61]此外,一些研究从比较的角度考察了农村教师招聘与保留的财政激励和非财政激励政策的效果。如,汤姆·托拉克森等的报告提出,单独的奖金不足以吸引和保留教师,而优质的教学条件比货币补偿是一个更强大的动力,改善教学条件将减少代价高昂的教师周转,提高教师效能。......
2023-10-16
选择滚动轴承类型应考虑以下几点:载荷方向、大小和性质 所有向心轴承均可承受径向载荷;所有推力轴承均可承受轴向载荷;同时承受径向、轴向载荷时可选用角接触球轴承、圆锥滚子轴承。角接触球轴承和圆锥滚子轴承需成对安装使用。其他 在径向空间受限制的场合可选用滚针轴承或滚针和保持器组件;对轴承振动、噪声有要求的场合,可选用低噪声深沟球轴承;此外在选用轴承类型时还应考虑经济性和市场供应情况等。......
2023-06-26
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