中东史下：现代化进程中的经济社会变革

2023-07-31 理论教育版权反馈

【摘要】：然而，海湾地区的石油开采影响着也门的经济社会生活，也门成为沙特阿拉伯和海湾诸国外籍劳动力的重要来源。自1967年独立后，南也门政府推行激进的经济社会政策，在工业、贸易、金融和交通运输领域实行国有化，强化政府的经济干预，不断增加工业投资。

也门具有农耕文明的悠久传统，堪称阿拉伯半岛的谷仓。也门内陆发达的灌溉工程和台田系统在古代世界闻名遐迩：马里卜水坝高16 米，宽680米，灌溉面积9 600公顷，见证了也门古代农业的繁荣。^[533]内陆山谷以及东部沿海是也门主要的农作区域，普遍种植包括高粱、黍稷、玉米、小麦和大麦在内的粮食作物，内陆山谷的咖啡和鸦片以及东部沿海的烟草和棉花构成也门典型的经济作物，咖啡的出口则是也门几乎唯一的外汇来源。

直到20世纪中期，也门90%的家庭从事农业生产，家庭构成农业生产的基本单位，普遍采用传统的农具和耕作技术。在内陆山区的北部和中部，小地产流行。在内陆山区的南部和东部沿海，大地产居多，普遍采用分成制的租佃方式；农民缴纳的实物地租，约占收成的三分之一到三分之二不等。^[534]东部沙漠以及东南部的哈德拉毛地区构成贝都因人的世界，居无定所的游牧经济长期占据主导地位。西起红海南端、东至阿曼边境的也门南部，气候炎热干燥，降水稀少，可耕地无几。20世纪初，也门总人口约300万—400万，其中农业人口占85%，游牧人口占5%；城市人口占总人口的10%，主要城市包括内陆山区的萨那和塔伊兹以及东部沿海的荷台达、南部沿海的亚丁。^[535]

马里卜水坝遗址

栽德派伊玛目政权统治时期，自给自足的传统农业依旧构成北也门最重要的经济部门，社会生活处于封闭的状态，血缘关系根深蒂固，工业化和城市化进程缓慢，外籍人口微乎其微。伊玛目叶赫亚当政期间，北也门政府的岁入主要来自宗教税和土地税，贸易税不足岁入总额的四分之一。^[536]

1962年，栽德派伊玛目政权寿终正寝，北也门陷入内战。1970年内战结束后，北也门开始进入经济发展的崭新阶段。1970—1977年，北也门的年国内生产总值增长一倍，经济作物的播种面积不断扩大，农业市场化程度明显提高。^[537]与此同时，产业结构出现新旧更替，非农业领域的经济活动趋于扩大，城市化进程随之加快。1950—1980年，农业劳动力所占的比例从86%下降为69%，工业劳动力所占的比例从6%上升为9%，服务业劳动力所占的比例从8%上升为22%。1965—1985年，北也门的城市人口比例从5%增至19%。^[538]1990年也门统一前，首都萨那的人口不足50万。1999年，萨那人口达到128万。^[539]

英国殖民统治时期，亚丁与东、西亚丁保护区之间在经济社会方面存在明显的差异。自1967年独立后，南也门政府推行激进的经济社会政策，在工业、贸易、金融和交通运输领域实行国有化，强化政府的经济干预，不断增加工业投资。1970年，南也门政府颁布土地改革法案，旨在否定传统的部族土地支配权。根据土地改革法案，私人占有土地的最高限额为水浇地8.5公顷和雨浇地17公顷，2.6万户土地改革的受益者加入政府控制的合作社。^[540]

进入80年代，南也门执政党也门社会党开始推行经济改革，削减国有经济，减少政府的经济干预，发展私人经济，鼓励私人投资，吸引国外投资。1950—1980年，农业劳动力所占的比例从75%下降为41%，工业劳动力所占的比例从12%上升为18%，服务业劳动力所占的比例从13%上升为41%。南也门的城市化水平略高于北也门；1965—1985年，南也门城市人口比例从30%增至37%。^[541]80年代末，城市人口占总人口的38%，首都亚丁的人口35万。1999年，亚丁人口达到45万。^[542]

自70年代起，也门的教育水平逐渐提高。在北也门，各类学校从1970年的700所增至1985年的5 000所，国民识字率从1962年的2.5%增至1985年的13%，1971年创建萨那大学。在南也门，学生总数从1967年的6.5万人增至1980年的27万人，识字率从1967年的20%增至1980年的40%，1975年创建亚丁大学。^[543]另据1998年的统计，也门的男性识字率达到69%，女性识字率达到35%。^[544]

20世纪80年代以前，北也门和南也门是阿拉伯半岛仅有的两个非产油国家。然而，海湾地区的石油开采影响着也门的经济社会生活，也门成为沙特阿拉伯和海湾诸国外籍劳动力的重要来源。自70年代起，也门劳动力大量拥入沙特阿拉伯和海湾地区。80年代，北也门向沙特阿拉伯和海湾诸国输出劳动力约55万人，年均赚取外汇收入10亿美元；南也门向沙特阿拉伯和海湾诸国输出劳动力20万人，年均赚取外汇收入1.8亿美元。^[545]对海湾地区的劳动力输出，构成联结也门与国际市场的纽带和桥梁。劳动力输出规模的扩大和外汇收入的增长，带来也门货币关系的扩大和经济市场化的长足发展。

马里卜水坝遗址

也门萨那大学

然而，劳动力输出所换取的外汇收入，大都并非投资生产领域，而是用于购置耕地和日常生活消费品。劳动力输出规模的扩大，导致国内地价上涨、通货膨胀加剧和进口贸易增长。另一方面，也门劳动力的输出导致国内劳动力的短缺，对于农业生产形成负面的影响。也门耕地面积，1961年为1 740万公顷，1998年为1 768万公顷，耕地面积增长无几，尤其是劳动力密集型和价格低廉的农作物播种面积明显减少，粮食产量大幅下降。也门农产品的出口额，1961年为2 960万美元，1971年为1 220万美元，1981年为2 360万美元，1991年为4 300万美元，1999年为6 320万美元。相比之下，也门农产品的进口额，1961年为4 970万美元，1971年为5 770万美元，1981年为80 400万美元，1991年为76 500万美元，1999年为77 200万美元。另据统计，1970—1980年，粮食作物进口额增长10倍。^[546]以上数字表明，自70年代起，也门的农业经历明显的变化。农产品出口额的大幅下降和进口额的大幅增长，一方面反映出经济市场化的长足进步，另一方面反映出农业生产的相对停滞状态。

与南也门相比，1970—1983年的北也门农业更具市场性和开放性。与此同时，北也门的农业自给化程度明显下降。1970—1980年，水果自给率从88%下降为44%，肉类自给率从98%下降为59%，乳类自给率从95%下降为57%，蛋类自给率从100%下降为50%，谷物自给率从88%下降为69%，蔬菜自给率从100%下降为94%。1983年起，北也门政府强化对于市场的干预，限制农产品进口，实行农作物生产的财政补贴，致力于提高农产品的自给率。1998年，也门的谷物自给率下降为25%，乳类自给率下降为47%，蔬菜自给率下降为93%。另一方面，水果自给率上升为97%，肉类自给率上升为86%，蛋类自给率上升为79%。^[547]农产品自给率下降的趋势并未得到明显的改变。

1984年，也门东部发现石油。^[548]1987年，也门开始向国际市场出口石油。1990年，也门的石油日产量达到20万桶。^[549]90年代末，也门石油日产量约40万桶，石油收入占政府财政预算的60%。^[550]

1990年，沙特阿拉伯和海湾诸国停止向也门提供经济援助，沙特阿拉伯政府驱逐境内的80万也门人，导致也门外汇收入锐减，国内失业率达到40%，经济形势恶化。^[551]1994年内战结束后，也门政府的外债高达80亿美元，通货膨胀率上升为65%，贫富分化加剧。90年代中期，占总人口10%的赤贫阶层收入不足国民总收入的1.5%，占总人口10%的富人收入超过国民总收入的50%。^[552]

统一后的也门成为阿拉伯半岛人口最多的国家，同时也是阿拉伯半岛最贫困的国家。2000年，也门共和国总人口为1 870万，其中76%生活在乡村，是中东地区乡村人口比例最高的国家。^[553]尽管如此，传统的经济社会秩序逐渐衰落，经济的市场化、社会的开放化和公共权力的国家化，导致血缘关系的削弱和部族社会的解体，也门正经历着新旧阶层此消彼长和社会整合的转变过程。

【注释】

[1]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，New York 2000，p.30.

【注释】

[2]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.32.

[1]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，New York 2000，p.30.

[3]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.51.

[2]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.32.

[4]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.39.

[3]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.51.

[5]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.43.

[6]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.46.

[4]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.39.

[5]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.43.

[7]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.49，p.50.

[6]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.46.

[8]Yapp，M.E.，The Making of the Modern Near East 1792—1923，p.174.

[7]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.49，p.50.

[9]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，New York 2004，p.114.

[8]Yapp，M.E.，The Making of the Modern Near East 1792—1923，p.174.

[10]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.70.

[9]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，New York 2004，p.114.

[10]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.70.

[11]伊本·泰米叶是14世纪的叙利亚学者，承袭罕百里派的思想传统，反对背离经训的创制，抨击艾什尔里和安萨里的理性主义，以及苏菲派的神秘主义和圣徒崇拜的宗教实践具有异教色彩和异端倾向，主张正本清源和回归经训，恢复早期伊斯兰教的信仰秩序，坚持“认主独一”的原则，同时主张重建早期哈里发时代的政治秩序，实行哈里发的民主选举原则，实现穆斯林人人平等的宗教原则，服从遵循教法的政府和反对背离教法的统治者，被誉为“罕百里教法学派的权威”和“伊斯兰世界激进组织的先驱”。

[12]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，p.114.

[13]Esposito，J.L.，Islam and Politics，p.36.

艾什尔里和安萨里的理性主义，以及苏菲派的神秘主义和圣徒崇拜的宗教实践具有异教色彩和异端倾向，主张正本清源和回归经训，恢复早期伊斯兰教的信仰秩序，坚持“认主独一”的原则，同时主张重建早期哈里发时代的政治秩序，实行哈里发的民主选举原则，实现穆斯林人人平等的宗教原则，服从遵循教法的政府和反对背离教法的统治者，被誉为“罕百里教法学派的权威”和“伊斯兰世界激进组织的先驱”。

[14]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，London 1981，p.84.

[15]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.89.

[16]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.89.

[14]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，London 1981，p.84.

[17]Esposito，J.L.，Islam and Politics，p.36.

[15]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.89.

[18]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.83.

[16]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.89.

[19]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，Cambridge 2002，p.15.

[17]Esposito，J.L.，Islam and Politics，p.36.

[18]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.83.

[20]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，London 1980，p.16.

[21]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，p.108.

[19]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，Cambridge 2002，p.15.

[22]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.17.

[20]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，London 1980，p.16.

[23]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.17.

[24]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，London 2005，p.14.

[21]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，p.108.

[22]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.17.

[26]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，New York 2004，p.75.

[27]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.75，p.77.

[24]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，London 2005，p.14.

[28]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.75，p.78.

[29]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.13.

p.22.

，什叶派穆斯林占巴林人口的多数，长期游离于政治舞台的边缘地带，无缘分享国家权力，进而形成与逊尼派穆斯林之间的明显对立，构成最重要的政治反对派。自70年代末开始，现代伊斯兰主义在巴林的影响逐渐

[30]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.76.

2004，p.75.

sup>[389]巴林的什叶派穆斯林尽管大都系阿拉伯人，却与伊朗具有密切的宗教和政治联系。

[27]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.75，p.77.

[31]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.132.

[32]②　Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.129.

[33]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.129.

[29]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.13.

[34]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.80.

[30]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.76.

[35]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Mmomentum of Reform，p.28.

[31]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.132.

[36]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.22.

[33]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.129.

[37]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.22.

[34]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.80.

[38]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.165.

[39]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.24.

[35]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Mmomentum of Reform，p.28.

[40]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.31.

[36]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.22.

[41]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.185.

[37]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.22.

[42]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.196.

[38]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.165.

[43]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.91.

[39]Beling，W.A.，King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia，p.24.

[44]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.18.

[40]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.31.

[45]Armstrong，H.C.，Lord of Arabia-Ibn Saud，Harmondsworth 1938，p.21.

[41]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.185.

[46]Howarth，D.，The Desert King：A Life of Ibn Saud，London 1964，pp.37—38.

[42]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.196.

[47]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，New York 1993，pp.24—36，pp.45—46.

[43]Schwartz，S.，The Two Faces of Islam，p.91.

[48]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.46.

[44]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.18.

[49]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，pp.51—52.

[50]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.62.

[45]Armstrong，H.C.，Lord of Arabia-Ibn Saud，Harmondsworth 1938，p.21.

[51]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.64.

[46]Howarth，D.，The Desert King：A Life of Ibn Saud，London 1964，pp.37—38.

[52]Armstrong，H.C.，Lord of Arabia-Ibn Saud，p.195.

[47]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，New York 1993，pp.24—36，pp.45—46.

[53]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.79，p.84.国王在阿拉伯语中称作马立克，而马立克一词显然与伊斯兰教的传统称谓不符，原本系异教统治者的称谓。1926年沙特家族采用的“国王”的称谓，系自伊斯兰教产生以来首次出现于阿拉伯半岛。

[48]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.46.

[54]Polk，W.R.，The Arab World Today，p.146.

[55]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.130.

[49]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，pp.51—52.

[56]Chatty，D.，Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North Africa，Leiden 2006，p.843.

[50]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.62.

[57]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.228.

[51]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.64.

[52]Armstrong，H.C.，Lord of Arabia-Ibn Saud，p.195.

[58]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，London 1988，p.5.

[59]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.137，pp.140—141，p.131.

[60]Chatty，D.，Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North Africa，p.844.

[61]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.229.

[54]Polk，W.R.，The Arab World Today，p.146.

[62]Howarth，D.，The Desert King：A Life of Ibn Saud，p.134.

[55]Helms C.M.，The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia，p.130.

[63]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.47.

[64]Mc Loughlin，L.，Ibn Saud：Founder of a Kingdom，p.88.

[56]Chatty，D.，Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North Africa，Leiden 2006，p.843.

[65]Howarth，D.，The Desert King：A Life of Ibn Saud，p.162，p.165.

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究的对象是物质，物质是由元素组成的，物质可用化学符号表示，化学符号是国际通用的化学的特有语言，所以会认识化学符号，会用化学符号表征物质是化学的核心素养之一。化学是一门

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该包括变化守恒、宏微结合、实验与探究、绿色应用、符号表征、科学精神和社会责任等。另外，由于初中化学是化学教育的启蒙阶段，所以面向全体学生，培养学生对化学的兴趣应放在重要的位置。

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03，p.37.

待自然和利用自然方面显示出相当高超的能力，并为世界做出了巨大的贡献。这种智慧在思维方式上是将整体加以分解，而这恰恰是东方思维所欠缺的。美国学者查尔斯·西尔伯曼在《教室的危机》一书中写道：“在中国的

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[199]自1953年的历代国王，包括沙特、费萨尔、哈里德、法赫德和现任国王阿卜杜拉以及现任王储苏勒坦，作为沙特阿拉伯政治舞台的核心人物，均系沙特王国第一代国王阿卜杜勒·阿齐兹之子。

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p>学生做的实验尽量让学生自己做、没有条件让学生做的要尽量在课堂或实验室演示。

②男女生对化学实验的认识不同

兴趣是学生学习化学的主动性和积极性的源泉，激发学生的学习积极性

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[221]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.367.

[184]Al-Yassini，A.，Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia，p.66.

[222]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.138.

[223]Aburish，S.K.，The Rise，Corruption and Coming Fall of the House of Saud，p.51.

重要的位置，这也给教师提供了一个很好的契机。那就是：能让学生做的实验尽量让学生自己做、没有条件让学生做的要尽量在课堂或实验室演示。

[224]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.139，pp.141—142.

[186]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.137.

[225]Niblock，T.，Saudi Arabia：Power，Legitimacy and Survival，New York 2006，p.78.

[187]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.445.

[226]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，pp.150—151.

[188]Kechichian，J.A.，Succession in Saudi Arabia，New York 2001，p.185.

[227]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.27.

[189]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.442.

[228]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.27.

[190]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.443.

[229]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，pp.146—147.

[230]Shaw，J.A.，Saudi Arabian Modernization，p.102.

[191]Aburish，S.K.，The Rise，Corruption and Coming Fall of the House of Saud，New York 1996，p.49.

[231]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.155.

[192]Al-Yassini，A.，Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia，p.83.

[233]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：the Coming Storm，p.64.

[193]Aburish，S.K.，The Rise，Corruption and Coming Fall of the House of Saud，p.46.

[234]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.29.

[235]Kechichian，J.A.，Succession in Saudi Arabia，pp.193—196.

[236]Jerichow，A.，The Saudi File：People，Power，Politics，Surrey 1998，pp.53—54.

[195]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East Oil Monarchies，London 2003，p.37.

[237]Niblock，T.，Saudi Arabia：Power，Legitimacy and Survival，p.95.

[238]Dekmejian，R.H.，Islam in Revolution：Fundamentalism in the Arab World，p.145.

[196]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，pp.287—288.

[239]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.224.

[197]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：The Coming Storm，p.20.

[240]Fandy，M.，Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent，New York 1999，pp.118—119.

[241]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：The Coming Storm，p.78.

[242]Fandy，M.，Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent，p.127.

[243]Fandy，M.，Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent，p.141.

[244]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，pp.179—183.

[245]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，p.262.

[201]亨廷顿：《变动社会中的政治秩序》，王冠华等译，生活·读书·新知三联书店1989年版，第136页。

[246]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.175.

[202]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Mmomentum of Reform，p.59.

液体生成，教学效果可想而知。

虽然很多农村教师能够清楚地认识到实验教学对于学生学习化学知识的重要性，认为化学实验是中学化学教学过程中必不可少的环节，但是在实际教学中，面对教学进

[248]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，p.188，p.191.

[203]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.29.

[249]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，p.211.

[204]Al-Yassini，A.，Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia，p.128.

[250]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.278.

[251]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.94.

[205]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.193.

[252]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：The Coming Storm，p.52.

[206]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.336.

[253]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.97，p.99.

[254]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.168.

书上安排的铜和浓硫酸反应的实验内容，需要通过实际操作在师生共同的探究过程中得出科学结论，但该教师却是借助电脑及屏幕投影“做出”，并用生动的 Flash 动画模拟二者反应时分子重新组合

[208]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.339.

[255]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.199.

[256]Kechichian，J.A.，Succession in Saudi Arabia，pp.203—206.

[209]Shaw，J.A.，Saudi Arabian Modernization，Wasington 1982，p.102.

[257]Khater，A.F.，Sources in the History of the Modern Middle East，pp.267—268.

[210]Al-Yassini，A.，Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia，p.122.

[258]Long，D.E.，The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia，p.40.

[259]Jerichow，A.，The Saudi File：People，Power，Politics，pp.35—40.

[211]Niblock，T.，State，Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia，pp.95—96.

[260]Jerichow，A.，The Saudi File：People，Power，Politics，pp.126—127.

[212]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.107.

[261]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.174.

[262]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，pp.148—150.

[213]Yizraeli，S.，The Remaking of Saudi Arabia，Tel Aviv 1997，p.71.

[263]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：the Coming Storm，p.73.

[264]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，p.144.

[214]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，pp.84—85.

[265]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.289，p.285.

[215]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.357.

[266]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，London 1998，pp.11—12.

[216]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.85.

[267]Sharabi，H.B.，Government and Politics of the Middle East in the Twentieth Century，p.256.

[268]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.79.

[217]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：the Coming Storm，pp.50—51.

[269]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.32.

[218]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.86.

取用 Na 2CO 3的量

[271]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.82.

[219]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.91.

[272]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，Kuwait 1996，p.127.

[220]Vassiliev，A.，The History of Saudi Arabia，p.365.

[273]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.24.

[274]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，London 2000，p.1.

[275]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.9.

[276]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.11.

[277]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.35.

[278]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.12.

[279]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，pp.15—16.

[224]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.139，pp.141—142.

都应进行必要的引导，对实验规范化操作的要点预先给予必要的说明并强调注意事项，尤其对于有安全隐患的实验更应如此。否则，学生实验操作过于随意，妨碍其打下牢

[281]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.94.

[225]Niblock，T.，Saudi Arabia：Power，Legitimacy and Survival，New York 2006，p.78.

[283]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.27—29.

[226]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，pp.150—151.

class="subscript">2CO 3中的一种或几种，如何用实验证明”

[285]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.42.

[286]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.372.

[287]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.354.

[228]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.27.

[288]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.95.

[289]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.100.

[290]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.101.

[230]Shaw，J.A.，Saudi Arabian Modernization，p.102.

[291]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.103.

[292]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.374.

[293]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.104，p.102.

[232]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.30.

[294]Al-Khalifa，S.A.K.，Bahrain through the Ages the History，p.13.

[295]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，Boulder 1989，pp.27—28.

[233]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：the Coming Storm，p.64.

[296]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.29.

[297]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.98.

[234]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.29.

[298]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.203.

[235]Kechichian，J.A.，Succession in Saudi Arabia，pp.193—196.

[299]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.203.

[300]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.67.

[236]Jerichow，A.，The Saudi File：People，Power，Politics，Surrey 1998，pp.53—54.

[301]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.74.

[302]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.71.

[237]Niblock，T.，Saudi Arabia：Power，Legitimacy and Survival，p.95.

[303]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.496.

[304]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.71—72.

[238]Dekmejian，R.H.，Islam in Revolution：Fundamentalism in the Arab World，p.145.

[305]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.98.

[306]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.78，p.79，p.75.

[239]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.224.

[307]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.372.

[308]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.75.

[240]Fandy，M.，Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent，New York 1999，pp.118—119.

[309]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.108—109，p.111.

[241]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：The Coming Storm，p.78.

[310]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.111—112.

[242]Fandy，M.，Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent，p.127.

[311]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.115—117.

[312]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.120—121.

[244]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，pp.179—183.

[314]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.121.

[245]Wynbrandt，J.，A Brief History of Saudi Arabia，p.262.

[315]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.122—123.

[246]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.175.

[316]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.114.

[317]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.114.

[247]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.279.

[318]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.114.

[248]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，p.188，p.191.

[319]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.374.

[320]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.679.

[321]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，pp.374—375.

[250]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.278.

[322]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.125.

[251]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.94.

[323]Hopkins，N.S.&Ibrahim，S.E.，Arab Society：Class，Gender，Power and Development，p.ⅩⅤ.

[252]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：The Coming Storm，p.52.

[324]Allen，C.H.，Oman：The Modernization of the Sultanat，Boulder 1987，p.23.

[325]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，London 2004，p.42.

[253]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.97，p.99.

[326]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.125.

[327]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，pp.44—45.

[254]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.168.

[328]Allen，C.H.，Oman：The Modernization of the Sultanat，p.38.

[329]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，p.45.

[255]Abir，M.，Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era：Regime and Elites；Conflict and Collaboration，p.199.

[330]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.126.

[256]Kechichian，J.A.，Succession in Saudi Arabia，pp.203—206.

[331]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.680.

[332]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.16，p.127.

[257]Khater，A.F.，Sources in the History of the Modern Middle East，pp.267—268.

[333]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，pp.34—35.

[334]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.128.

[335]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，p.48，pp.63—64，p.50.

[259]Jerichow，A.，The Saudi File：People，Power，Politics，pp.35—40.

[336]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，London 2000，p.2.

[260]Jerichow，A.，The Saudi File：People，Power，Politics，pp.126—127.

[261]Al-Rasheed，M.，A History of Saudi Arabia，p.174.

[338]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，p.21.

[262]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，pp.148—150.

[339]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.131.

[263]Wilson，P.W.&Graham，D.F.，Saudi Arabia：the Coming Storm，p.73.

[340]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.132.

[264]Cordesman，A.H.，Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-First Century，p.144.

[265]Champion，D.，The Paradoxical Kingdom：Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform，p.289，p.285.

[266]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，London 1998，pp.11—12.

[341]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.35—36，p.38，p.39.

[267]Sharabi，H.B.，Government and Politics of the Middle East in the Twentieth Century，p.256.

[268]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.79.

[342]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，pp.182—183.

[269]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.32.

[270]Al-Khalifa，S.A.K.，Bahrain through the Ages the History，p.349.

[344]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.133.

[271]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.82.

[345]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.33，p.36.

[272]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，Kuwait 1996，p.127.

[346]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.87.

[273]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.24.

[347]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.36—37.

[274]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，London 2000，p.1.

[348]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.89.

[275]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.9.

[349]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.37—38.

[276]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.11.

[350]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.19.

[277]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.35.

[351]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.38.

[278]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.12.

[352]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，pp.19—20.

[279]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，pp.15—16.

[280]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.2.

[353]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.90—91.

[281]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.94.

[354]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.41.

[282]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，pp.94—95.

[355]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.97—98.

[356]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.49.

[357]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[283]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.27—29.

[358]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.96.

[284]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.51.

[359]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.91—92，p.97.

[285]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.42.

[360]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.91—92，p.97.

[286]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.372.

[361]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.97.

[287]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.354.

[362]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97，p.93.

[288]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.95.

[363]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.494.

[289]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.100.

[364]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[290]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.101.

[365]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.98.

[291]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.103.

[366]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[292]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.374.

[293]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.104，p.102.

[368]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.117.

p>教学分组化

⑥实验观念建构

在中学开展实验教学，有利于学生在学生时代形成实验观的学科观念，使得学生在解决化学问题时能

[369]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.96.

[295]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，Boulder 1989，pp.27—28.

[296]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.29.

[370]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.121，p.118，p.119.

[297]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.98.

[298]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.203.

ddle East，p.147.

断加强化学实验的教学研究，才能不断提高学生的化学实验素养，切实提升教学质量。

（5）探究式实验教学信息化

通过对

[299]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.203.

[372]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[300]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.67.

[373]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.54.

[301]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.74.

[374]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[302]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.71.

[303]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.496.

[375]Tetreault，M.A.，Politics and Society in Contemporary Kuwait，New York 2000，p.128.

[304]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.71—72.

[376]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.495.

[305]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.98.

[377]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.56.

[306]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.78，p.79，p.75.

[378]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.56.

[307]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.372.

[379]Tetreault，M.A.，Politics and Society in Contemporary Kuwait，pp.228—229，pp.230—232，p.236.

/p>

同样，在化学学习中引入一些生活常识，会使学生更易明了所学内容，激发学习化学的兴趣，增强学生的探究意识。例如，在讲到高中“铵盐

[309]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.108—109，p.111.

[380]East，R.&Joseph，T.，Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East，p.149.

[310]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.111—112.

[381]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.63.

[311]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.115—117.

[382]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.60.

[312]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.120—121.

[383]Khurt，M.I.，Tribe and State in Bahrain，Chicago 1980，p.202.

[313]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.121.

[314]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.121.

[384]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.62—63.

[315]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.122—123.

[385]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.70—71.

[316]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.114.

[386]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.87—88.

[317]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.114.

[387]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.496.

[319]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.374.

[388]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.73—74.

[320]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.679.

[389]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.77，p.83.

[321]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，pp.374—375.

[322]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.125.

[391]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.86.

[323]Hopkins，N.S.&Ibrahim，S.E.，Arab Society：Class，Gender，Power and Development，p.ⅩⅤ.

[392]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.84—85.

[324]Allen，C.H.，Oman：The Modernization of the Sultanat，Boulder 1987，p.23.

[393]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.497.

[325]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，London 2004，p.42.

[326]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.125.

[394]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East Oil Monarchies，p.33.

[327]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，pp.44—45.

[395]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.78—79，p.80.

[328]Allen，C.H.，Oman：The Modernization of the Sultanat，p.38.

[329]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，p.45.

[396]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East Oil Monarchies，p.34，p.72.

[330]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.126.

[397]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.670.

[331]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.680.

[398]East，R.&Joseph，T.，Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East，p.223.

[332]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.16，p.127.

[399]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.104.

[333]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，pp.34—35.

[400]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East oil Monarchies，p.50.

[334]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.128.

[335]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，p.48，pp.63—64，p.50.

[401]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.262.

[336]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，London 2000，p.2.

[402]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，p.165.

[337]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.17—18.

[403]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.49—50，p.56，p.57，p.220.

[338]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，p.21.

[404]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East oil Monarchies，p.72.

[339]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.131.

[405]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.84，p.85.

[340]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.132.

[406]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.38.

[341]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.35—36，p.38，p.39.

[407]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.64.

[342]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，pp.182—183.

[408]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.48.

[343]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.41—42.

[409]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.86.

[344]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.133.

[410]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.59.

[345]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.33，p.36.

[411]Al-Kuwari，A.K.，Oil Revenues in the Gulf Emirates，Boulder 1978，p.76.

[412]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.95，p.93.

[413]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.267.

[347]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.36—37.

[414]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.17，p.39，p.40，pp.38—39.

[348]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.89.

[415]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.25.

[349]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.37—38.

[416]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，pp.266—267.

[417]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.45.

[418]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.87，p.202，pp.266—267.

[419]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.84，p.202.

[352]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，pp.19—20.

[420]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，pp.677—678.

[353]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.90—91.

[421]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，pp.266—267.

[354]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.41.

[422]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.202.

[355]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.97—98.

[423]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.375.

[356]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.49.

[425]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.6，p.26，p.8，p.9.

[357]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[426]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.158，p.177，p.159，p.160，p.160.

[358]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.96.

[427]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.52.

[359]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.91—92，p.97.

[428]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.493.

[429]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.52.

[360]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，pp.91—92，p.97.

[430]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.51，p.53，p.55，p.59.

[361]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.97.

[431]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.93—111.

[432]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.682.

[362]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97，p.93.

[433]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.139—152.

[363]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.494.

[434]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.76.

[364]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[435]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.201.

[436]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.83.

[365]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.98.

[437]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.36.

[366]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[438]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.268.

[439]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.36.

[440]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.83.

[368]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.117.

[441]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.139.

[369]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.96.

[442]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.268.

[443]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.18.

[370]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.121，p.118，p.119.

[444]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East oil Monarchies，p.36.

[445]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.268.

[446]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.85.

[372]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[447]Mohammed，N.S.A.，Population and Development of the Arab Gulf States，Hampshire 1988，pp.5—6.

[373]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.54.

[448]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.85.

[374]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.97.

[449]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.4.

[450]Mohammed，N.S.A.，Population and Development of the Arab Gulf States，p.21，p.9.

[451]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.19.

[376]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.495.

[452]Mohammed，N.S.A.，Population and Development of the Arab Gulf States，p.9.

[377]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.56.

[453]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.274.

[378]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.56.

[454]Roberts，M.H.P.，An Urban Profile of the Middle East，p.130.

[455]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.276.

[379]Tetreault，M.A.，Politics and Society in Contemporary Kuwait，pp.228—229，pp.230—232，p.236.

[456]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.680.

[380]East，R.&Joseph，T.，Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East，p.149.

[458]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.498.

[381]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.63.

[459]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.275.

[382]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.60.

[460]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.376.

[461]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.18.

[383]Khurt，M.I.，Tribe and State in Bahrain，Chicago 1980，p.202.

[462]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.51，p.49.

[384]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.62—63.

[464]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.66.

[385]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.70—71.

[465]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.10，p.5，p.7，p.77.

[386]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.87—88.

[466]Hopkins，N.S.&Ibrahim，S.E.，Arab Society：Class，Gender，Power and Development，p.ⅩⅤ.

[387]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.496.

[467]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.4.

[468]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.23.

[388]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.73—74.

[469]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.58.

[389]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.77，p.83.

[470]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.69.

[471]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.58.

[472]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，pp.57—59.

[391]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.86.

[473]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.105，p.107，pp.113—114，p.118，p.119，p.122.

[392]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.84—85.

[474]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，pp.147—149.

[393]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.497.

[475]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East oil Monarchies，p.112.

[476]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.166—167，pp.170—172，pp.176—177.

[394]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East Oil Monarchies，p.33.

[477]Colburn，M.，The Republic of Yemen：Development Challenges in the 21st Century，London 2002，p.11，p.13.

[395]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，pp.78—79，p.80.

[478]Dresch，P.，A History of Modern Yemen，Cambridge 2000，p.9.

[396]Najem，T.P.&Hetherington，M.，Good Governance in the Middle East Oil Monarchies，p.34，p.72.

[397]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.670.

[481]Sharabi，H.B.，Government and Politics of the Middle East in the Twentieth Century，p.250.

[398]East，R.&Joseph，T.，Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East，p.223.

[482]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.685.

[399]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.104.

[483]Sharabi，H.B.，Government and Politics of the Middle East in the Twentieth Century，p.245，p.244.

[484]Sharabi，H.B.，Government and Politics of the Middle East in the Twentieth Century，p.245，p.244.

[485]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，pp.194—195.

[401]Aarts，P.，Saudi Arabia in the Balance：Political Economy，Society，Foreign Affairs，p.262.

[486]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.195.

[402]Owtram，F.，A Modern History of Oman，p.165.

iddle East in the Twentieth Century，p.246.

[488]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.690.

[403]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.49—50，p.56，p.57，p.220.

[489]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.398.

[490]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.691.

[491]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.361.

[492]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.692.

[405]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.84，p.85.

[493]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.399.

[494]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.692.

[406]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.38.

[495]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.363.

[407]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.64.

[496]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.686.

[497]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.489.

[408]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.48.

[498]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.196.

[499]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.397.

[500]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.489.

[410]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.59.

[501]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.686.

[502]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.199.

[411]Al-Kuwari，A.K.，Oil Revenues in the Gulf Emirates，Boulder 1978，p.76.

[503]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.200.

[412]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.95，p.93.

[504]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.367.

[505]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.367.

[413]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.267.

[506]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.401.

[507]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.368.

[508]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.403.

[415]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.25.

[509]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.370.

[416]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，pp.266—267.

17 年高考试题中就很好地体现了这方面的知识考查。比如，2017 年全国卷Ⅱ第 28 题从水中溶氧量入手，向学

[511]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.404.

[417]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.45.

[512]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.493.

[418]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.87，p.202，pp.266—267.

[513]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.405.

[514]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.492.

[419]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.84，p.202.

[515]East，R.&Joseph，T.，Political Parties of Africa and the Middle East，p.304.

[420]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，pp.677—678.

[516]Khoury，P.S.&Kostiner，J.，Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East，London 1991，p.256.

[421]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，pp.266—267.

[517]Colburn，M.，The Republic of Yemen：Development Challenges in the 21st Century，p.18.

[422]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.202.

[518]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.492.

[423]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.375.

[519]Norton，A.R.，Civil Society in the Middle East，Leiden 1996，p.292.

[424]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，pp.266—267.

[520]Dresch，P.，A History of Modern Yemen，p.194.

[425]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.6，p.26，p.8，p.9.

[521]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.407.

[426]Al-Dekhayel，A.，Kuwait：Oil，State and Political Legitimation，p.158，p.177，p.159，p.160，p.160.

[522]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.407.

[427]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.52.

[523]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.494.

[428]Peretz，D.，The Middle East Today，p.493.

[524]Sidahmed，A.S.&Ehteshahmi，A.，Islamic Fundamentalism，p.221.

[429]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.52.

[525]Sidahmed，A.S.&Ehteshahmi，A.，Islamic Fundamentalism，p.221.

[430]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.51，p.53，p.55，p.59.

[526]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.408.

[431]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，pp.93—111.

综上分析，笔者认为初中化学核心素养应该包括变化守恒、宏微结合、实验与探究、绿色应用、符号表征、科学精神

[528]Dresch，P.，A History of Modern Yemen，p.209.

[432]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.682.

[433]Allen，C.H.，Oman under Qaboos：From Coup to Constitution 1970—1996，pp.139—152.

[529]Al-Rasheed，M.，Counter-Narratives：History，Contemporary Society and Politics in Saudi Arabia and Yemen，New York 2004，pp.251—252.

[434]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.76.

[530]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.694.

[531]Dresch，P.，A History of Modern Yemen，p.185.

[435]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.201.

[532]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.694.

[436]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.83.

[533]Colburn，M.，The Republic of Yemen：Development Challenges in the 21st Century，p.12.

学生学习化学的主动性和积极性的源泉，激发学生的学习积极性尤为重要。托尔斯泰曾经说过：“成功的教学，所需的不是强制，而是激发学生学习的兴趣。”兴趣是最好的

[438]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.268.

[534]Beaumont，P.&Mc Lachlan，K.，Agriculture Development in the Middle East，pp.241—244.

[535]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.193.

[440]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.83.

[537]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.220.

[441]Assiri，A.R.，The Government and Politics of Kuwait，p.139.

[442]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.268.

[539]Colburn，M.，The Republic of Yemen：Development Challenges in the 21st Century，p.75.

些理论性很强、但化学实验内容并不太多的知识点，让学生有了懵的感觉，因此好多学生描述在刚进入高中化学学习的前两个月有崩溃的感觉，而且和初三

[540]Lofgern，H.，Food，Agriculture and Economic Policy in the Middle East and North Africa，Oxford 2003，p.266.

找它们和书中知识的一些衔接点，而不要针对知识就题论题。比如，讲到离子反应时要结合初中学过的复分解反应，找它们之间的相通之处，又找出不同之处。初中讲的复分解反应发生的条件是：有沉淀、气体和水生成，高

[445]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.268.

[446]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.85.

e 21st Century，p.75.

习化学的兴趣。

第四，实验课的开设可增加学生对化学的兴趣。要适时、及时地穿插一些实验，通过调查发现，虽然针对不同的年级段、不同

[543]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.364，p.366.

[447]Mohammed，N.S.A.，Population and Development of the Arab Gulf States，Hampshire 1988，pp.5—6.

[544]Colburn，M.，The Republic of Yemen：Development Challenges in the 21st Century，p.68.

[448]Crystal，J.，Kuwait：The Trasformation of an Oil State，p.85.

[545]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.220.

[449]Zahlan，R.S.，The Making of the Modern Gulf States，p.4.

[546]Lofgern，H.，Food，Agriculture and Economic Policy in the Middle East and North Africa，p.273，p.269，p.270.

[450]Mohammed，N.S.A.，Population and Development of the Arab Gulf States，p.21，p.9.

[547]Lofgern，H.，Food，Agriculture and Economic Policy in the Middle East and North Africa，p.278.

[451]Lawson，F.H.，Bahrain：The Modernization of Autocracy，p.19.

[548]Yapp，M.E.，The Near East since the First World War，p.364.

[452]Mohammed，N.S.A.，Population and Development of the Arab Gulf States，p.9.

[549]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.693.

[453]Owen，R.，A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century，p.274.

[551]Ochsenwald，W.，The Middle East：A History，p.693.

[454]Roberts，M.H.P.，An Urban Profile of the Middle East，p.130.

[552]Ismeal，T.Y.，Middle East Politics Today：Government and Civil Society，p.410.